The hormonal effects of alcohol use on the mother and fetus.

During pregnancy, the hormonal systems of the mother and fetus are intricately interconnected to ensure normal fetal development. Accordingly, maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy can interfere with fetal development, not only directly, through adverse effects exerted by alcohol that crosses the placenta and enters the fetal bloodstream, but also indirectly, by disturbing the functions and interactions of maternal and fetal hormones. In both the mother and the fetus, alcohol exposure can impair the functioning of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which regulates the body's response to stress; the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, which controls reproductive functions; and the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis, which regulates the metabolism of almost all tissues. In addition, alcohol can interfere with the activities of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factors, which promote body growth and activity. Some of the effects of maternal alcohol consumption on fetal hormone systems may contribute to the adverse effects observed in children with fetal alcohol syndrome and related disorders.